In homage to my maternal grandmother Ramona Rosa Bordón de Vallejos, to
the first school of affection, respect and humility.
Introduction
To date there is no proof of the birth of the
Universe from a singularity (In physics that does not exist, only in
mathematics there are quotients that divide by zero in the metric of General
Relativity). To give an ad hoc closure appears the theory of inflation
(something that accelerates the universe to magical speeds and then in the same
way stops without generating devastating waves like a tsunami, where matter and
energy appear).
The FLRW metric has no cross terms, because
there are no distortions in the form of gravitational radiation in the
universe. We measure the same Hubble constant in all directions, the
discrepancy occurs by epochs and not by direction in which we look at the
universe. At least it is more or less what the technology at hand tells us.
That means that the Hubble constant was not that constant in the life of the
Universe.
We study primordial photons; this is where our
understanding of the Early Universe goes. We can generate The Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation (CMB) spectrum of radiation powers. What is the only
certain thing that you tell us that? That in the Early Universe the matter did
not cool down at the same time, but in stages, like a sequence or process,
those stages were recorded in peaks and valleys.
Then the imagination begins to play against us.
As for example quotients of baryonic matter and dark matter or exotic matter
that push the Universe, none of that is proven. And it has fewer adherents,
even among those who most cling to defending the theory that bears the name
"Big Bang" (the name does not mean anything, it is just a name, like calling
Black Holes to wonderful objects that provide us with great information) .
Through scientific studies we can interpret
that, if we have matter with a high density and we know the approximate
chemical elements that compose it, we know how some particles behave in the
case of photons and neutrinos (those discovered today).
Hence, the scientific community estimates that
there was a non-instantaneous process of emission of NEUTRINES before photons
(we schematized it as a wave in phase). It means that the neutrinos detached
from the plasma before the photons.
These particles (neutrinos) in the Early
Universe are a very valuable contribution of information that contrasts with
photons. The challenge is to consolidate that data and of course to interpret
it. For that, the physics of Neutron Stars advanced a lot and can give us
information in the area of Nuclear Physics. For example, the emission of
neutrinos. Since the NEUTRON STARS STUDY has direct information on these
processes in contrast to the masses of these astronomical objects.
ABOVE ANY THEORETICAL SPECULATION. LET US SAY
IT IS MORE ADVANCED THAN OTHER AREAS.
What do I mean when I say interpretation of the
results: When we see a graph of Powers of the CMB, many scientists are going to
hear that it is an exact representation of what happened in the Early Universe,
in which Dark Matter is taken into account. We also know that if using an online
calculator such as https://cmb.wintherscoming.we will not notice that the first
peak increases if we remove the dark matter. Then you will say, solved the
enigma, there is Dark Matter.
Well, Vera Rubín made a great discovery in the
late 1960s and / or early 1970s, according to the bibliography. They discovered
an effect on galactic halos. This effect is not necessarily "exotic"
matter that we do not see or detect with any technology. It may be the effect
of the drag force that the system produced when the galaxies were born, but
that effect is not the direct equivalent of the mass, but rather the drag force
that is equivalent to the mass and the speed with which it was moving. THE
SYSTEM OR THE BORDER.
This drag force was printed on a fluid with a
certain rotational speed and viscosity in its formation, while the center of
the system accumulated more matter than the halos by gravity (the system
decreased in density and temperature).
Over time the drag force was withdrawn and the
center of the system with the greatest accumulation of matter, the radial or
tangential velocity of the particle system increased at its center (where there
was already more matter). You will find more information in the previous entry
"Dark Age". Of course, that's just my hypothesis that it gets
stronger every day.
This means that the interpretation of the
"surplus of neutrinos" or higher value of Neff, in quotation marks
since the energy in the decoupling of the plasma is studied and if there is any
particle to discover. When we discover a new particle, we have to detect it by
itself or by its residue (decomposition or decay) in other particles, and the
interaction with the other particles of the standard model. What “for now”
removes the possibility of sterile neutrinos. We continue with just three
neutrino flavors and the respective antineutrinos. It is neither good nor bad,
it is science ...
That information we are looking for is crucial
and we must mature a more realistic idea in cosmological terms of a model that
in reality can be demonstrated by the data and evidence set.
Today to 2021, after more than 60 years we will
continue looking for ghosts for another 60 or 70 years ... I do not think it is
a sin. Sin is closing ourselves to a single interpretation..
The baryonic mass of the Universe is 1.6 x 10 ^
53 kg ten orders less than the baryonic mass plus dark matter which is 1.01 x
10 ^ 54 kg.
This formula is not to rule out dark matter,
but to see that as the density of the universe decreases, the influence of that
matter will be less on the light that moves. Also, that for obvious reasons,
time is speeding up. Since time runs more slowly when there is greater
influence of matter, and the universe over time becomes less dense.
By Pablo Fernández (Neff):
"Nothing less than processes like
1 °) Decoupling of neutrinos.
2 °) The annihilation of electron-positron
pairs (e⁻e⁺).
3 °) The primordial nucleosynthesis ”.
“The effective number of neutrinos (represented
mathematically as Neff) is a cosmological parameter, which means that its value
indicates a certain property of the Universe. Specifically, the effective
number of neutrinos measures the contribution to radiation that existed in the
early universe that did not come from photons, the particles of light ”.
“Specifically, the Neff value is quantified in
terms of the contribution corresponding to a single neutrino species in an
idealized scenario. It should be noted, however, that the experimental value of
Neff provides information not only on the three types of standard neutrinos
that are known, but on any particle other than photons that contributed to the
radiation of the early universe ”.
“Furthermore, as we have said, it is true that
neutrino decoupling began before electron-positron pair annihilation did, but
neither of these two processes is instantaneous. This means that the decoupling
of the neutrinos ends when the annihilation of electron-positron pairs has
already begun ”.
“The presence of a greater number of neutrinos
of more energy implies a greater contribution to the radiation of the early
Universe. That is, its contribution to the effective number of neutrinos is
greater, so that Neff increases with respect to its ideal value.
Finally, if we carefully consider all the
effects that change the value of Neff with respect to its ideal value (which
would be 3), we arrive at the result that Neff = 3.044 ”.
Source:
https://bloggy.ific.uv.es/bloggy/index.php/2021/06/16/el-universo-temprano-iii-el-numero-efectivo-de-neutrinos/
_____________________________________________________________________
The Cosmic Neutrino Background (CNB) is
believed to have an approximate temperature of 1.95 K as of today. [1
Model: Science is in the race and there is no
area more advanced in theoretical aspects than the study of Neutron Stars.
Within this area we have the Neutrino emission
study.
Table [2]
PhD Thesis Teguayco Pinto Cejas Thesis
For Temperature in the range of [1; 0.3] MeV.
At this time the decoupling of neutrinos takes place and a little later the
annihilation of electrons and positrons transferring their entropy to the
photons. At about this time, the weak interactions that interconvert neutrons
and protons freeze. When this happens, the relationship between neutrons and
protons is given by their equilibrium value.
(n / p) = 1/6
After thawing, this ratio doesn't really stay
constant, but actually slowly decreases due to occasional weak interactions
(eventually dominated by free neutron decays). At this time, light nuclear
species are still found in NSE with very small abundances.
NSE: Under certain physical conditions, all
direct and inverse reactions proceed so fast that the so-called NSE is
established, when the concentrations of all nuclides and the thermodynamic
properties of matter are determined by conditions of thermodynamic equilibrium.
For Range Temperature [0.3; 0.1] MeV. At that
time, the number of degrees of freedom has decreased from 10.75 to 3.36 due to
both the decoupling of neutrinos and the annihilation of electrons and
positrons. Also, due to neutron decay, the proton fraction has dropped to ~
1/7. It is then that the production of D (Deuterium) begins to be effective,
giving rise to a chain reaction, which will result in the formation of 4He.
Therefore, the amount of 4He produced depends on the expansion rate of the
universe. If it spreads faster, there will be rapid cooling and therefore the
amount of D that decays will be less and at the same time the number of
neutrons will be greater, since there is not enough time for the neutrons to
decay.
As we have seen, in summary, neutrinos have a
double impact on BBN. On the one hand, through the processes of conversion n
roundtrip to p mediated by weak interactions that are directly affected by the
neutrino spectrum together with electrons, positrons and neutrinos,
antineutrinos.
On the other hand, as a component of the
background radiation, affecting the expansion rate of the universe through the
relationship. The expansion rate determines when and how 4He production begins.
This fact can be used to set a limit on the number of relativistic species.
Image [3]
electron-positrons, three thermally distributed
neutrinos correspond to Neff = 3 in instantaneous decoupling.
OF COURSE SOMETHING THAT SEEMS NOT TO HAPPEN
LIKE THAT. I stop reference bibliographies with the complete thesis.
[1] Beta Decay and the Cosmic Neutrino
Background DOI: 10.1051 / epjconf / 20147100044.
[2] Neutrino Emission from Neutron Stars D.G.
Yakovlev O.Y. Gnedin, A.D. Kaminker, and P. Haensel.
[3] Detailed study of the decoupling process of
cosmological relic neutrinos PhD Thesis Teguayco Pinto Cejas June 2008.
_____________________________________________________________________
Neutrinos
THE WORK AHEAD IS SIMPLE, FIRST WE MEASURE
EXPERIMENTALEMTNE (OBSERVATION) ON Neff, THE MOST RELIABLE VALUE WE CAN REACH.
THEN, WE CONSOLIDATE A MODEL THAT EXPLAINS THAT VALUE. AND IF WE CAN DETECT
PRIMORDIAL NEUTRINES, BETTER.
From the point of discrepancy in the radiation
emission that is measured with Neff, although there are many interpretations
due to circumstances, the most feasible for analysis are those of rotating
objects inherited from Neutron Stars.
Neff analysis within what is the study of
primordial neutrinos.
· We have the cosmic neutrino background CvB
thanks to its discovery Baryonic Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (BOSS) [1].
· We have the theoretical measure of the Neff
measurement Theoretical measure of Neff = 3.0440 +/- 0.0002. to which we can
add many more hypotheses. [2] What Planck 2015 measures is Neff = 3.046. [3]
· Possible direct detection of primordial
neutrinos [4] DUNE and Hyper-K.
· We also have the study of the masses of
neutrinos with two experiments 1 ° KATRIN Experiment and 2 ° PTOLEMY
Experiment. [5]
· The experiments that will increase the
certainty in the probability value are 1st DESI Survey and 2nd EUCLID
spacecraft. [6]
· I discard corrections that create more
hypotheses on unproven hypotheses such as Applying the Halo Model to Large
Scale Structure Measurements of the Luminous Red Galaxies: SDSS DR7 Preliminary
Results [7]
[1] First constraint on the neutrino-induced
phase shift in the spectrum of baryon acoustic oscillations doi: 10.1038 /
s41567-019-0435-6.
[2] Towards a precision calculation of Neff in
the Standard Model II arxiv: 2012.02726v3.
[3] Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological
Parameters arXiv: 1502.01589v3.
[4] White Paper on New Opportunities at the
Next-Generation Neutrino Experiments /
https://www.dunescience.org /
http://www.hyper-k.org/en/.
[5] https://www.katrin.kit.edu and
https://www.iff.csic.es/neutrino-physics-with-the-ptolemy-project-active-neutrino-properties-and-the-light
-sterile-case /.
[6] Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI)
https://www.desi.lbl.gov and https://wpo-altertechnology.com/es/mision-euclid/.
[7] Nuclear Physics B (Proc. Suppl.) 194 (2009)
129-132; Beth A. Reid -Institute of Space Sciences (CSIC-IEEC), UAB, Barcelona
08193, Spain-.