Cosmology, the
last frontier ...
Dedicated to:
My mother Juana
M. Vallejos and sister Natalia C. Vallejos. From which I inherited the
temperament and concern for everything that surrounds us.
To the Chemical
Engineer graduated from FIQ-UNL Santa Fe; Oscar A. Delgado, friend and mentor.
He told me:
"You can never underestimate the influence of a good teacher on a
student."
I also thank: my
private students, students of my amateur astronomy workshops, the people who
participate in the scientific cafes, as well as the friends who share
observation trips ...
We
do science !!!
Image
I
HYPOTHETICAL
UNIVERSE PART III
Do we have a
Universe prior to ours? Perhaps, if we consider the temperature that is needed
for the symmetry breaking of the Strong Force that holds the Quarks together
(or Quarks-Gluon plasma temperature). And the missing antimatter ...
We will leave
this area for a future article [1].
We start our
analysis from an epoch with a density equal to a Neutron Star. That can even
have Quark in the form of inhomogeneities at a QCD temperature of (temperature)
T = Range [(40-1) MeV - 37 eV] following the line of time evolution [2] [3].
The left bound depends on the annihilation of baryons and anti-baryons.
Controversy that I avoid because in my analysis I rule out the existence of
baryonic antimatter in the Early Universe.
The main
neutrino emission processes occur at power temperatures of 10^9 ° K and 10^8 °
K with densities of 10^16 kg / m3 [4]. Temperature equivalence in ° K and eV
[5].
Another issue
that the entire scientific community and even in this writing assume is that we
are not taking into account the mass of Black Holes, intergalactic dust or the
mass of exoplanets. The one that we should not assume despicable. In the case
of having a frontier that separated from our universe, it is even more
difficult to estimate its mass, but of course I do not underestimate the
scientific community and future verifications.
Of the millions
of galaxies that exist in the universe, 70% exhibit spiral characteristics.
Astronomers have confirmed that the galaxy A1689B11 is the oldest known spiral
galaxy to date. It was formed 2.6 billion years after the Big Bang [6].
H) HYPOTHESIS
THE UNIVERSE IS
BORN FROM A RADIO, WITH A FINITE AMOUNT OF MATTER, WITH A SYSTEM THAT HAS A
BORDER AND ANGULAR MOMENT.
My time starts
counting from a certain radius and with a density similar to that of a Neutron
Star (NS).
The influence of
the boundary on the system in the Early Universe should explain the symmetry
(morphology and velocity curves) that some spiral galaxies have. And maybe it
will solve other deeper questions ...
We see that all
objects rotate (the most important principle in cosmology: conservation of
angular momentum). The BOUNDARY CONDITION, an edge, a boundary of the system
that can have different properties.
Without
neglecting the angular momentum of the system. It would explain why all
astronomical objects have angular momentum. Even spiral galaxies. We know that
spiral galaxies of different epochs have similar rotational speeds at different
sizes even. When we say that an object inherits the angular momentum of the
system from which it comes. For example, a Black Hole that is formed from the
disappearing Star. What we cannot determine are the velocities of the laminar
or turbulent fluids within that astronomical object.
In the same way,
the Universe could have a radius with a finite amount of matter with which it
was born. And that suggests two lines of research that are part of the proposal
that I started at the Keck 2020 meeting.
THE FIRST line
was to be able to investigate the trajectory of the particles that leave the
plasma of the accretion disk of Super Massive Black Holes towards the Event
Horizon (for example, the Black Hole of M87, New Prize in Physics 2020) and
that images are available at different wavelengths (EHT).
THE SECOND line
of research is to be able to model the formation of galaxies without Dark
Matter, starting from a time where the density of the universe is around the
density of a Neutron Star. KSM2020.
For science, the
discovery of Quasar with z> 7 poses serious challenges because it is not
known how objects with 10 ^ 9 Solar Masses could form in the early days of the
Universe [7] [8] [9] [10].
In the same way,
if there were Black Holes in the early universe, there could also be primordial
Neutron Stars that did not go through the stage prior to a Supernova explosion
(Population Stars III °).
The critical
mass of formation of a Black Hole is greater than the critical mass of
formation of a Neutron Star. The Upper Limits may be under investigation. But I
consider either of the two discoveries important because they speak of an era
with predominance and inhomogeneities of a medium in which neutrons (n0) could
exist [11].
These regionally
predominating neutron density variations may have given way to SMBHs that today
are found at the center of most spiral galaxies.
We have new
tools to find Neutron Stars with low temperatures in multiple systems, perhaps
with some probability, an example is to detect systems with more than two
objects with the cooperation of several observatories to track mergers that can
be difficult to detect due to their emission of radiation.
Thanks to
GRAVITATIONAL WAVES we have information on mergers, then search the region to
see if other objects are found accompanying the system with similar
characteristics. The holy grail would be an SMBH or a primordial NS (an
irrefutable proof for the case of an NS would be its low temperature) [12]. Add
this to the knowledge we have about the cooling of these stellar objects [13]
[14].
Perhaps it can
shed light on an epoch that is of fundamental importance in explaining the
morphology of spiral galaxies. In the future, more information can be provided
by the NICER project [15].
Metrics
The metric that
explains an expanding Universe is simple. The large-scale concordance is The
Cosmological Principle and Weyl's Postulate.
Broadly
speaking, the Universe is Isotropic and Homogeneous since the space between the
objects of the Universe expands.
On the
sidelines, we currently see that the Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) gives
small temperature variations in the order of ΔT / T ≃ 10^-5 [16].
We can add
something more transcendent, if we look in any direction, we will have the same
Hubble constant (in any direction, above our heads, below our feet, in front,
behind, to our sides, we will measure the same constant). But the measurements
between different epochs or periods are known.
Artistic Image
II.
[Image III] [17
- Copyrighted].
The problem with
models with angular momentum such as Boyer-Lindquist (4-Dimensions) [18], is
that it does not differentiate the properties of the boundary with the matter
it contains, if the angular momentum is maximum, it loses spherical symmetry.
In this sense,
it is convenient to simplify the analysis in the case of objectives such as
determining the age of the universe by the FLRW model [19].
Another
advantage of the FLRW model is that we can work in the plane [I use SageMath to
obtain the two Friedmann equations].
Studies in
Neutron Stars (NS) can shed light on what happens with the properties of matter
in this sense or future studies on the diameter of Super Massive Black Holes
(SMBH) already proposed at the KSM2020 meeting due to some property of the
matter in the Early Universe, the current size of the Universe, were concealed
and tempered or the intrinsic properties of matter do not allow variations in
the density of matter in different directions or different values of the
Hubble constant.
It's simple, the
metric can explain how the space outside the boundary can form waves and folds.
The same does not happen within the border.
In summary, what
I explained in the KSM2020, the Kerr metric tells us nothing about the
intrinsic properties of the boundary of an SMBH with is the case of the Black
Hole found in M87, neither does it with any BH.
We can find
similarities between the boundary of a SMBH and the BORDER of a Primordial
Universe, it is an interesting study ahead. Not because they are exactly the
same, but because Black Holes can be a copy of the DNA of the Universe.
THERE ARE TWO
ELEGANT OPTIONS TO THIS ENIGMA. If the frontier is ENERGY, it will move with
tangential speed at light speeds. If it is of MATTER (a state that we do not
know or is quark plasma) it will not be its light tangential speed, but in any
case, the BORDER of the Primordial Universe will emit radiation due to the
interaction of matter. If the boundary is light, it will emit radiation with
any particle interaction that approaches it.
The radiation
may not be important as it depends on the viscosity of the boundary and the
drag force. Plasma works like a fluid and we know that at higher temperatures
the viscosity is lower.
Some authors can
express much better than I can the superfluidity behavior that we have to take
into account in a HL. The neutron liquid present in the inner crust is
considered to be a superfluid, just as the mixture of neutrons and protons in
the outer nucleus of the NS forms a superfluid (of neutrons) and a superconductor
(of protons). [twenty]
To this we add
that the most important interaction with the border will not come from the
radiation that is generated (since it would emit all kinds of radiation and
these are approximated). The important thing is the drag by gravity that it
will produce on the system for a certain time and the temperature of the
system.
The pressure and
temperature of the system also have a role to determine. And this is a separate
chapter, if there is a possibility that the size of the galaxies is really
different, it may be in the cooling rate and in the distance from the center of
pressure of the system.
Regarding
radiation there is possibly a way to measure it. If the border has a higher
speed than the matter in its interior, then it will emit more radiation than
the natural processes that we already know, because the interaction of matter
will be greater in that region or sheet of the Universe close to the border.
And this is just one of several hypotheses. The important thing is to extrapolate
the radiation emission as close as possible to the amount of matter.
There is a
possibility to measure it. As we know, the border "if it existed" had
to be removed before the matter in its interior cools (adiabatic process: we
increase the volume, the pressure and the temperature decrease). The only
particle that can give us information on the radiative processes, before the
first peak of the Angular Power Spectrum, are the neutrinos or Cosmic Neutrino
Background (CvB). I want to clarify that this independent of the discussion of
their masses [21] and what could contribute not only the mass but also the
amount generated for the formation of galaxies product of the border. There is
another point that is equally or more important.
It is important
to know what the theoretical quantity of neutrinos is above the quantity of
matter in the universe in that period in order to be able to theorize the mass
radiated by the boundary. Or simply to know what is the real amount of baryonic
matter interacting ... And that will be very difficult since new models of NS
cooling are investigated day by day.
First
observation of the phase shift caused by neutrinos in the Baryonic Acoustic
Oscillation. The discovery made possible the Baryonic Oscillation Spectroscopic
Survey (BOSS) [22].
Of course, what
interests me are the exact measurements. Since the calculation according to
Planck 2015 is Neff = 3.046 without ruling out additional radiation. The
significance remains low or let's say the probability value is not conclusive [23].
Ahead we have
the possibility of improving this calculation. I mention next-generation
neutrino experiments like DUNE and Hyper-K [24]
Theoretical Neff
measure = 3.0440 +/- 0.0002 [25]
The frontier is
going to have enough time to maintain the temperature of the matter inside it
until it reaches a sufficient recession speed to withdraw. Since the flight
from the border due to the speed of recession tells us that the beginning is
low.
Now I'm going to
work on a plane. The metric depends on the Hubble constant H0 (the way the
Universe expands) and something that is consequential, the increase in volume
generates a decrease in temperature.
2D
On the other
hand, I CONSIDER A CLOSED UNIVERSE WHICH BY DEFINITION IS THE ONE THAT
EXCHANGES ENERGY WITH THE SYSTEM, BUT NOT MATTER. Unlike the Big Bang model
that takes an ISOLATED universe (without exchange of matter and energy).
If this were not
the case, in an Isolated Universe (Big Bang Theory) where it expands
permanently without exchanging energy with the outside, the
"supposed" SINGULARITY that originated the Universe should continue
to provide the energy for the expansion ... Or some other matter exotic with
different properties to those known. For example, to replace a border expansion
energy (dark energy and we can add dark matter) we would have to have a matter
that does not interact with light and is repulsive and in the case of dark
matter sometimes interacts with light and others not ... And thousands of more
controversial issues ...
But there is not
yet proof of an initial Singularity, nor an experimental proof of how an
inflationary process has a matter generating mechanism.
[Image
IV] [26 - Copyrighted].
Artistic
Image V.
A gas at high
pressure does not behave like an incomprehensible gas. But the BORDER and
ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT on a plasma (which if it behaves like an incomprehensible
fluid at high pressures collaborated to have a homogeneous distribution and did
not allow the matter to coalesce (form heavy nuclei) until the border was
withdrawn, cooling the system Leaving an incomprehensible gas behind.
“This puts the
model that I present as the only possible alternative so far that can explain
the instant prior to an incomprehensible proton gas. Since the rest of the
simulation or cosmological models cannot explain how they arrive at an
incomprehensible gas of particles from a plasma or condensed state of matter”.
Consider that
the force that dominated the universe from this stage was GRAVITY between
particles and later objects, especially since the border was removed. Plasma
under forces tears. There is interaction between nucleons due to the rotational
movement of the system, but as it is not static it cannot form heavy nuclei,
added to the presence of neutrons that we know at high pressures and temperatures,
the half-life extends, the clear example is NS. We must also take into account
the drop in temperature depends on the Hubble constant. If we have a density
and a temperature of around 600,000 ° K as the departure from the Early
Universe onwards, the boundary receded very slowly (taking into account the
radius, the Hubble constant and the recession rate), the system cooled slowly,
and the rotational gravitational effects of the border were giving ground to
the angular momentum of the galactic bulbs that were being formed.
The Hubble
recession rate depends on the constant and the distance. We change the constant
to seconds and it gives us (2,185 x 10 ^ -18 s ^ -1) we multiply it by the
extrapolated radius of the current known volume to which it should have with
the baryon density of a NS which is (9,855 x 10 ^ 11 m) gives us a boundary
leak rate of (2.153 x 10 ^ -6 m / s) The boundary held heat and pressure until
it reached higher speeds according to the model we explained.
Metrics [Annex
I]
It is worth clarifying
that if I reformulate the FLRW "without dark matter" I will have an
older Universe (we know that baryonic matter is missing, but we do not know how
much).
_With a galaxy
of 5 KPc in diameter, it could have a mass of an object at its center of
approximately [2.27 to 8.3] .10 ^ 5 kg lower limit calculated with respect to
the Solar System (extrapolating linearly), upper limit calculated with respect
to Via Milky.
More serious
studies than this simple reflection can be found on the increase in densities
in relation to the formation of stars [27].
An IRREFUTABLE
PROOF is the rotation not only of all the objects of the Universe, especially
the primordial galaxies that do not present fusion processes are in rotation by
the system (which in this work is attributed to the boundary of the system).
Translated it means that there is rotation in all the objects of the Universe
before the Dark Matter models.
[Annex VI] [28]
[29]
The SMBH seed
formation models in AGN have severe limitations for testing mass objects on the
order of 109 Solar Masses starting from Population III Stars. What results in
objects of lower mass than those that exist in the AGN. [30].
Another
consequence to study taking into account the period of the Universe under study
is the formation of Blazar (morphological aspects) [31].
Age of the
Universe Online Calculator (we can subtract ≃380,000 years from this account because our zero is in
the neutron formation stage) [32].
Without Dark
Matter, the Age of the Universe gives us greater than +19 Giga years.
Image
VI
Movement by
layers and regions of the Early Universe. Manifestation of what we see today.
It means that the morphology of the objects in the vicinity of the border will
be different from those we see in the center.
For example, it
can affect the size, we do not know in what proportion since we do not know
what is the viscosity or the gravitational force that the boundary impels the
system or the movement itself of the system from which we come (I leave the
speculations to the Theoretical Physicists as currents of matter and antimatter
colliding with energy currents, together with Universes dividing into bubbles,
etc.), we can project the force of gravity by drag, since we have tangential
motion in galaxies.
Image
VIII
Probably. The
temperature of the system did not drop in a uniform way which gave for a period
of formation of structures from a stage with fluid behavior. Now, already in
the gaseous or low-density stage it was easier to have a thermal equilibrium or
the Universe was not very large compared to the current one.
Conclusions
Previous universe for another article, I try to analyze from a density and
temperature relative to a NS with initial Temperature between 1 MeV to 37 eV
without baryonic antimatter and density close to 10 ^ 16 kg / m3.
There is a lack of baryonic matter that is considered negligible and on the
other hand we cannot confirm if there was a border and if it was baryonic
matter. Leaving aside that it may also be assimilating some type of energy to
expand.
My
Hypothesis is that the universe is born with a finite radius and mass. Whether
or not there is a defined boundary and it has angular momentum along the
system.
All
objects in the Universe have angular momentum even in different regions and
times and this angular momentum in systems like galaxies are similar.
This
work is a continuation of KSM2020 that I propose two lines of research are
necessary. Early Universe without dark matter and border. Also the trajectory
of the plasma leaving the accretion disk and heading to the event boundary of a
SMBH.
The
study of SMBH in the center of spiral galaxies, the study of primordial
neutrinos, the pressure of the Early Universe with boundary.
The
metric lacks flow tensors and similar to the metric used in NS.
We
need to venture into simulations.
Reference:
[1] Azimuthal
Charged-Particle Correlations and Possible Local Strong Parity Violation doi:
10.1103 / PhysRevLett.103.251601.
[2] Evidence for
quark-matter cores in massive neutron stars doi: 10.1038 / s41567-020-0914-9.
[3] Lower bound
temperature - The fi rst
second of the Universe Dominik J. Schwarz Theory Division, CERN, 1211 Geneva
23, Switzerland p20.
[4] Neutrino
Emission from Neutron Stars arXiv: astro-ph / 0012122v1.
[5] Online
calculator http://www.colby.edu/chemistry/PChem/Hartree.html Temperature (eV) =
8.625 x 10 ^ (- 5) x Temperature (° K).
[6] The Most
Ancient Spiral Galaxy: a 2.6-gyr-old disk with a tranquil velocity field
arxiv.org/pdf/1710.11130.pdf or arXiv: 1710.11130v1.
[7] The birth of
intermediate-mass black holes in primordial galaxies arXiv: 2012.09177v1.
[8] A Luminous
Quasar at Redshift 7.642 arXiv: 2101.03179v1.
[9] The
Formation of the First Quasars. I. The Black Hole Seeds, Accretion and Feedback
Models arXiv: 2012.01458v1.
[10] Chandra
x-rays From The Redshift 7.54 Quasar Ulas J1342 + 0928 arXiv: 1803.08105v1.
[11] Late-Time
Neutron Diffusion and Nucleosynthesis in a Post - QCD Inhomogeneous Omega b = 1
Universe 1988ApJ ... 333 ... 14M.
[12] GW190814:
Gravitational Waves from the Coalescence of a 23 Solar Mass Black Hole with a
2.6 Solar Mass Compact Object doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab960f.
[13] The physics
of neutron stars arxiv.org/abs/1102.5735v3.
[14] Thermal
Evolution of Compact Stars arXiv: astro-ph / 9603142v2.
[15]
https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/nicer.
[16] Physics of
the cosmic microwave background anisotropy arXiv: 1501.04288v1.
[17]
https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/new-studies-agree-the-universe-is-expanding-faster-than-expected.
[18] The
Astrophysical Journal, 178: 347-369, 1972 December 1 -Rotating Black Holes:
Locally Nonrotating Frames, Energy Extraction, and Scalar Synchrotron
Radiation- 1972ApJ ... 178 ... 347B.
[19] Cosmology
and Particle Astrophysics -Lars Bergström, Ariel Goobar- p 61.
[20] Neutrino
emission in neutron matter from magnetic moment interactions arXiv: astro-ph /
0402315v1.
[21] On the most
constraining cosmological neutrino mass bounds. arXiv: 2106.15267v1.
[22] First
constraint on the neutrino-induced phase shift in the spectrum of baryon
acoustic oscillations doi: 10.1038 / s41567-019-0435-6.
[23] Planck 2015
results. XIII. Cosmological Parameters arXiv: 1502.01589v3.
[24] White Paper
on New Opportunities at the Next-Generation Neutrino Experiments /
https://www.dunescience.org / http://www.hyper-k.org/en/.
[25] Towards a
precision calculation of Neff in the Standard Model II arxiv: 2012.02726v3.
[26]https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Observable_universe_logarithmic_illustration.png
[27]. THE
KINEMATICS OF IONIZED GAS IN LYMAN-BREAK ANALOGS AT Z = 0.2.
Annexed
[28] The
ALPINE-ALMA [CII] survey Survey strategy, observations, and sample properties
of 118 star-forming galaxies at 4 <z <6 arXiv: 1910.09517v2.
[29] A cold,
massive, rotating disk galaxy 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2276-y.
[30] Formation
of SMBH seeds in Population III star clusters through collisions: the importance of mass
loss. arXiv: 1912.01737v2.
[31] The fi rst
blazar observed at z> 6; A&A 635, L7 (2020)
https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201937395.
[32]
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/CosmoCalc.html
[33] Age of the
universe and the energy density of radiation. Antonina Calahorrano, Carlos A. Marín. Edited
by / Edited by: Cesar Zambrano, PhD. Received / Received: 2015/10/22. Accepted
/ Accepted: 2015/11/01. Published online / Published on Web: 2015/12/30.
Printed / Printed: 2015/12/30.
https://www.wolframalpha.com
[34] Planck 2018
results. SAW. Cosmological parameters arXiv: 1807.06209v3.
[35] .PDF
Cosmology and particle physics Lecture notes Timm Wrase Lecture 6 The thermal
universe - part II. Black Body Radiation.
